Sectoral Activities   -   Social Dialogue SECTOR Home | What's New | About SECTOR | Meetings | Publications | Discussion Forum | Contact Us | Links | Site Map Risks and dangers in small-scale fisheries: An overview - Part 3 4. Accidents associated with themarine environment 4.1. Crossing surf Surf crossing has been practised all over the world since prehistoric times and continued after motorization. Today it takes place wherever natural or artificial harbours and smaller shelters are rare, and beaches are low and physically accessible to beachable craft. Such craft evolved with time, assuming various shapes in different parts of the world. Among the best-known examples of artisanal beachable fishing craft are sailing rafts such as the Brazilian janghadas and Indian kattumarams, African canoes, Caribbean pirogues and the outrigger canoes of Oceania. In Israel, outboard-powered 6-8 m khassakas – fishing boats – have been developed from beach-rescue paddled rafts with a double purpose – beaching and speed. Fishermen in northern Denmark, southern England, Yorkshire, Scotland, Ghaza and other places also are accustomed to beaching their small fishing vessels. They apply various techniques to pull them through the surf and onto the beach, such as beach-mounted winches, capstans or tractors (a practice that evolved from boat-beaching with the help of beasts of burden, still practised some decades ago). Crossing oceanic or other surf on the way to and from the beach or estuarine and other shelters is taking a big toll in lives and in equipment. Boats that are not of unsinkable construction, such as rafts and some canoes or khassakas, founder, but capsizing is the predominant form of accidents. Capsized African canoes may stay afloat after the catch and the fishing gear spills out. Sometimes the crew manages to straighten them back. In the tropics, people who manage to cling to floating capsized hulls until the craft is thrown onto the beach, without getting smashed in the process, can survive (with or without major injuries). Notwithstanding, capsizing in surf has been found to be the principal cause of accidents and fatalities in 13 west and central African countries (Gallene, 1995, 1997; Houehou, 1993). 4.2. Bad weather 4.2.1. Poor visibility In dense fog, small fishing craft are common victims of collision with large vessels. Small boats are rarely equipped with radars, radar reflectors or other means of detection, neither are they able to signal their presence to large vessels. Since they produce weak traces on the radar screens of large vessels their being on a collision course often remains unseen. Poor visibility caused by, for example, haze overlying the horizon and hiding coastal orientation markers, may result in fishermen losing their way, running ashore or grounding (see section 5.2). 4.2.2. Major storms Small-scale fishermen who venture in their canoes, pirogues and other small craft, sometimes for tens of miles into the ocean are the first casualties of hurricanes, cyclones, typhoons and tsunamis. Ten or 11 years ago the typhoon Wayne, although classified as moderate, caused havoc to the fishing fleets of the islands of Taiwan and the Pescadores. It sank, destroyed or damaged beyond repair at least 1,500 fishing craft and is thought by some as the most damaging storm of the century in the area. Considering the extent of the damage, the loss of life was light – "only" 60 fishermen were dead or missing. In 1977, a cyclone in the Bay of Bengal killed 10,000 people; in 1990 another one killed 967 people, while in June 1996 another cyclone took 120 lives. Many of the casualties were small-scale fishermen killed at sea or on the beach. The events of 6 November 1996, when a cyclone caused extensive loss of life in the East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh, indicated that India’s Cyclone Contingency Plan of Action was of little help when there was a missing link in the chain of communication of cyclone warnings (see Short case-study 2: India) (P. Calvert, 1998; R. Ramachandran, J. Turner, personal coms.). Short case-study 2: India The densely populated coastal area of the East Godavari River Delta (Andhra Pradesh state, India) is extremely vulnerable to cyclone-induced flooding. The population density of the coastal strip of Konaseema, which was worst affected by the November 1996 cyclone is 800 people per sq. km, more than double that of the whole district. It is very flat and little land is higher than two metres above sea-level. During the storm surge resulting from the cyclone, the sea level rose by between two and four metres. Thus, of all cyclone damage, the most destructive phenomenon is usually the storm surge, which accounts for more than 90 per cent of loss of life and property. About once a year, a severe cyclone crosses the coast of Andhra Pradesh, leaving behind a wake of destruction with an average width of about 30 km. Early on 5 November 1996, the meteorological service detected a cyclone and communicated warnings to the relevant state and district authorities. The cyclone followed a straight westerly course, crossing the East Godavari River Delta between 20.00 and 22.00 hours on 6 November. Maximum wind speeds were 220 km/hour and the storm surge was reported as 2.2 m. in height. It took fishermen by surprise because of a lack of normal natural warning signs and killed over 1,400 of them. Out of the 400 strong Kakinada-based fleet of motorized boats, 110 were lost at sea along with 569 crew members. Most of them had sailed several days before the cyclone to fish along the coast to the north and south of Kakinada, though not beyond the 70-fathom line (typically 35 km offshore and well within the range of All India Radio transmissions). Boats that carry transistor radios had heard the warnings, but this did not stop the good fishing. Some reported that heavy radio noise interfered with the weather forecasts. About 100 survivors whose boats had either capsized or foundered swam or drifted for up to 36 hours to shore, while some saved themselves by clinging to the insulated hatches of their boats. Few life-rafts or life jackets (if any) were carried on board. According to a press report an official noted that life-rafts are not normally carried "because hatch covers serve that purpose", in spite of the fact that hatches should be battened down in bad weather to reduce the risk of foundering. Survivors expressed an opinion that, had there been a timely SAR response, some of the 569 lives lost at sea might have been saved. According to the Department of Fisheries, of the 1,435 fishermen dead or missing (presumed dead) in the Kakinada, Rajahmundry and Amalapuram Divisions of East Godavari District, 830 were killed by the storm surge while fishing shrimp seed on the beaches of the Godavari estuary, far from their villages and from any possible shelter. Fortunately, the storm surge passed through the area at low tide (22.35 hours). Had the cyclone occurred six hours earlier or later, many of the 10,000 fishermen who survived in the two worst affected villages (Bhairavapalem and Balusutippa), by standing in water up to chest level with children placed on high shelves in houses built of reinforced concrete, might also have been lost. Questions were asked how, in spite of the modern INSAT-based Cyclone Warning Dissemination System, a not very severe cyclone took so many fishermen’s lives, while only one month later, over 300,000 Andhra Pradesh coastal residents were evacuated in a timely manner when another cyclone developed in the same area.Unfortunately, in November the warnings failed to reach either some of the fishermen on land or the small boat fishermen at sea in time, and certainly the gravity of the situation was not conveyed to them. In addition, the cyclone had developed abnormally fast and had not created either the cloud formations or the winds and downpour which usually convince fishermen to take an alert seriously. Lack of severe storm experience might have been another factor that kept some of them from seeking shelter. Although the authorities had at least 36 hours warning, the required action might not have been urgent enough. Also, a warning sounded onshore, even if timely, may have little effect on the safety of fishermen at sea, because of inadequate shore-to-sea communication. Less than one-third of crews take transistor radios to sea, their only means of communication, which are anyway not necessarily continuously tuned to stations broadcasting the relevant weather reports. Reportedly, even larger vessels fishing further offshore are often not equipped with wireless and radio sets. Altogether, while modern, sophisticated technology can supply early warnings, bringing these warnings in a timely and effective manner to the fishermen at sea and on the beach, and to their families at home, remains an urgent issue (World Fishing, 1996).   5. Accidents associated with navigation 5.1. Loss of power at sea According to several reports, since the introduction of outboard motors the loss of life at sea has increased, although even without hard statistical evidence such an idea makes sense. This is because with a motorized craft fishermen tend to travel greater distances offshore, putting them at risk if the engine fails. Moreover, although they used to use sails, they have stopped taking them to sea and the younger ones are not even trained in their emergency use and do not know what to do with them. The art of sailing, an important skill, has been lost in many developing countries. In Oceania, for example, apart from other accidents and fatalities, eight small fishing vessels and 30 crews are reportedly lost annually without any indication of their fate. Many other vessels drift for prolonged time periods, sometimes for months, before being found. Engine failure, either due to breakdown or running out of fuel, appears to be the predominant cause. Outboard engines are as a rule less reliable than most inboard diesels. Small boats that do not carry spare engines, masts, sails, oars, paddles and anchors – and they rarely do – start drifting when engine power is lost. If they have any means of signalling or radioing their position, fellow fishermen, the SAR service or any fortuitous vessel may pick them up. Otherwise their fate depends on their position in relation to coast, and the state of the sea, winds and currents. The peril increases on isolated islands with steady winds blowing them offshore or strong winds driving them towards heavy surf or a rocky beach (Gulbrandsen, 1992; T. Adams, personal com.). Short case-study 3: Micronesia According to observations during 1992-95, many of the fishermen of Pohnpei Island, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), who fish in small skiffs powered by 25-75 hp outboard motors, ventured beyond the safety of the lagoon without proper safety and survival gear. Due to economic constraints only a few carried emergency motors. Usually, they had no EPIRBs, no flares and no hand-held radios. All they had on board was fishing gear, water and food for the day. When fishermen did not return as scheduled, the families would usually wait 24 hours before taking action, allowing for the probability of the fishermen taking shelter in one of the atolls in the area. When it became clear that they were unaccounted for, a search was usually launched. Given the strong trade winds in the area and few shelters on terra firma, the likelihood of the skiffs drifting quickly out of the searchable area was very high. The SAR team usually consisted of family members and friends who ventured out (also usually in such poorly equipped skiffs) and began combing the area where the missing fishermen were supposed to be last fishing. Australian patrol vessels based in some of the Micronesian islands did not usually become involved in SAR for missing fishermen unless already out on active patrol. A local Pacific Missionary Aviation (PMA) unit would also send out their light aeroplane for an air search. Most often, due to the lack of any radio-direction signals, the pilot had to rely on a purely visual search. However, the PMA plane would often be on other assignments and unavailable for SAR. Other islands in the FSM chain were not as lucky in having a PMA plane based at their airport. Even so, in 1995 the PMA plane in Pohnpei was scheduled to relocate to Yap Island due to a disagreement with the Pohnpei Airport Authority which, although PMA was performing most of its SAR operations free of charge, had increased hangar charges (C. F. Heberer, personal com.). 5.2. Loss of way Loss of way in small fishing craft is dangerous, because in most cases they do not carry large amounts of fuel, food or drinking water. In normal conditions, experienced artisanal fishermen rarely lose their way at sea, in spite of sailing without navigation instruments, often even without a magnetic compass. Their navigation skills bring them, in a way not comprehensible to seafarers from developed countries, to underwater banks and reefs, through narrow passages among underwater obstacles and to spots on the shore they aim for. Such skills are based on traditional knowledge, experience and intuition, and an intimate acquaintance with coastal and sea-bottom features, stars and constellations, and daily wind rotation for the time of year. However, things may go awry when conditions change unexpectedly. Dense fog, cloudy nights combined with an unusual wind direction or abnormal lack of wind, etc., may bring about temporary or even fatal loss of way. Being in the wrong place in stormy weather is when the danger starts. 5.3. Grounding and running ashore In areas where light, artisanal fishing craft are employed in operations over shallows, alongside and over coral reefs, and among rocks, grounding is a frequent event, usually without any serious consequences, the boat or raft being pushed or pulled off the shallow, either manually or by a flood tide. If, however, grounding occurs in rough weather and tall waves, the craft may be smashed to pieces and its crew left in serious distress. The absence of life-rafts, life jackets, lifebuoys, etc., may result in fatalities. Staying afloat alone does not ensure survival, if there are no other fishermen in the vicinity or it is impossible to call SAR. The situation is quite different in case of heavier, western-type small-scale fishing vessels (European-made 12 m trawlers may have a displacement of over 25MT and a draught of 1.7 m). Although they are much more difficult to get off the shallow, they are usually equipped with radio communication, navigation and adequate safety equipment; they also usually operate in areas well covered by SAR services. 5.4. Collisions Small fishing vessels are often involved in collisions, especially in areas of heavy traffic of merchant shipping (see also Short case-study 1: United Kingdom). Collisions and bizarre accidents involving submarines fouling trawling gear sometimes end in capsize sinkings and fatalities. Big merchant or naval vessels may cut a fishing boat in two and carry on without even being aware of it. 5.5. Fire on board Fire accidents on board fishing boats often end in injuries, largely burns, which are sometimes fatal. In small-scale fisheries, fire on board is much more likely in decked fishing vessels with cooking-gas galleys, electric installations and spare fuel under or on the deck, than on board artisanal fishing craft. On the latter – mostly partly or fully deckless boats or rafts – fires can be immediately detected and dealt with. None the less, where petrol-driven outboard motors are used and spare fuel is carried on board, fires, sometimes disastrous, do happen, especially when outboard-driven large canoes operate at a large distance from their base and have to carry substantial amounts of spare petrol. In modern, decked small fishing vessels the danger and management of fire are basically similar to those in larger fishing and merchant vessels. One frequent cause of fires and explosions in fishing vessels is leakage of (cooking) gas in closed, poorly ventilated compartments. When the gas concentration is strong enough, it may ignite and explode on contact with an electric spark, or if someone smoking enters the compartment. There are records of injuries and fatalities of fishermen who have died from burns inflicted in such circumstances. Leaking fuel or lubricant may seep and be gradually absorbed by the wooden parts of the boat and accumulate in various cracks and hollows. This may make extinguishing a fire on board very difficult. Other common fires are "foc’s’le fires", which occur mainly when tired fishermen fall asleep in their bunks with cigarettes burning and "galley fires", which are self-explanatory. Fire on board due to lightning striking a mast not fitted with a lightning conductor is rarer (Satia, 1993).   6. Accidents associated with fishing operations 6.1. Injuries from fish and other animals, and poisoning Fisherfolk of both sexes and all ages are more prone to injurious and even fatal contact with marine animals than other sectors of the population, except perhaps of course, frequent beach swimmers. Such contacts, much under-reported, may result in stings, bites, penetrations, envenomation and external or internal poisoning. As a rule, they are all painful and some are fatal. The reaction and resistance of the afflicted person are individual and depend in many cases on the person’s immune system and the strength of its allergic reactions. Records of swimming beach accidents indicate a great proportion of children among the fatalities, who may be less resistant to poisons and venoms. Since children, especially in developing countries, often participate in shallow-water fishing activities, they quite probably suffer many casualties. There are three main ways in which such injuries by contact with aquatic animals occur, namely in the water, on board fishing craft and eating fish that contain toxin. 6.1.1. In water Many types of fishing operation require people to be partly or fully submerged: beach-seining; extracting fish from shallow-water setnets and tidal stopnets; fishing and collecting "seed" fry for aquaculture while wading in mangrove channels, estuaries, backwaters, tidal flats and other shallows; diving and collecting sea cucumbers and molluscs; harvesting seaweed; diving for lobsters, pearl shells and trochus; commercial spear gun fishing; and undertaking such illicit practices as fish poisoning and fishing with explosives. Wading carries the risk of stepping on thorny, venomous animals such as sea urchins, certain shells (Conus spp.) and starfish, or getting stung by a stonefish or stingray. Encounters with sharks in very shallow waters are rare, but people pulling on beach-seine sweeps have been hit and even severely wounded by panicking large and toothy fish, such as barracuda, bonito or bass. Attacks by estuarine crocodiles are on record, some with fatal results. Bites by venomous sea snakes have been known, though they are rare. Many, frequently painful and lingering, and sometimes even fatal, injuries occur in shallow water due to contact with venomous jellyfish, especially the Portuguese man-of-war, sometimes blown in great swarms onto beaches. This siphonophore, particularly its Atlantic variety, Physalia physalis, is believed responsible for many deaths. In Okinawa alone, some 40-50 deaths occur annually among wading and swimming fishermen when gathering sea shells and swimming, owing to contact with sea animals. Swimmers and divers have a greater risk of encountering large marine predators. Many attacks by sharks and barracudas on pearl and shell divers are undocumented and have received scant scientific attention. A rather bizarre way to die is fishing with electric torches, as worn by divers or boatmen to attract fish. Needlefish (Tylosorus spp.) swimming towards the light can penetrate a fisherman’s torso or head, causing sometimes fatal injuries. Unfortunately, as far as small-scale fishermen are concerned, such accidents mostly occur at sites remote from centres where the casualties can get professional first aid and medical treatment; this increases the number of victims. Also, where such services are present, the animal that has caused the venomous injury is often unidentified, or antivenins are unavailable (Williamson et al., 1996). 6.1.2. On board fishing craft Injuries on board fishing craft occur mainly due to contact with the fish caught and with some of the bycatch, that is, undesirable species hauled in together with the catch, particularly in trawl nets. Large fish hauled while still alive and fighting may hurt fishermen. Sharks and other large fish may cause injuries by a sudden flip of the tail (mainly sharks and stingrays), or a jab by the beak or "sword" (billfishes) or saw (sawfish). Sometimes an apparently dead, but large, toothy fish suddenly bites at a fisherman’s limb or finger. Stingrays can flip their tails for quite a while after they have been taken out of the water and there are recorded cases of serious wounds inflicted by large stingrays whose strong and sharp tail spines may reach 15-20 cm in length. Painful stings are inflicted by various fish that carry venom in their spines, indeed by any fish whose sharp teeth and spines are strong enough to penetrate human skin. Jellyfish and Portuguese men-of-war are also dangerous out of the water. They carry allergens and their strong smell causes allergic reactions in more sensitive people (Williamson et al., 1996). 6.1.3. Poisoning by marine toxins Ciguatera poisoning is the most common and most lethal risk (over 12 per cent fatalities) of eating certain fish species caught in a tropical environment, usually near coral reefs. The problem is that while naturally fishermen are great fish eaters, ciguatera toxin in the flesh of the fish does not change its flavour and is undetectable by humans or other animals. Certain shellfish and finfish may be carriers of other toxins, like tetraodon, the toxin occurring in puffer meat that presents a danger rather more frequently to clients of exclusive Japanese restaurants than to fishermen (Williamson et al., 1996). 6.2. Injury by deck machinery and equipment Such injuries are less common in small-scale fisheries, because most of the world’s small fishing craft have little machinery on board. But in technically advanced fisheries one may find on vessels under 12 m in length most modern deck machinery, i.e. small trawlers with winches and netdrums, gill-netters with netdrums and nethaulers, seiners with seine winches and power blocks, longliners with linehaulers or automated baiting-setting hauling systems, and vessels equipped with automatic pole and line and jigging fishing machines. Injuries are frequent, consisting of fingers and whole limbs caught in winch drums and barrels, or components of fishing gear under tension; fishing hooks and "spines" in steel-wire ropes sticking in the hands or any other parts of the body; contusions and wounds caused by ropes, cables and various links parting under tension, etc. Fatalities, however, are rare. When fish are manually beheaded, gutted, skinned or filleted on board, injuries from knives are frequent and sometimes result in loss of fingers. 6.3. Falling overboard and hypothermia Falling overboard is very common. Fishermen performing a range of tasks associated with bending overboard, or keeping balance on a spray-washed and slimy, slippery deck of a small boat that rocks and rolls heavily in even moderate seas, are liable to finding themselves falling overboard or being swept into the sea. In small, decked fishing craft, gunwales are often very low and railings or manropes usually absent. Fatalities are frequent, especially if the fall is unnoticed. One way to fall overboard unnoticed, especially at night, is when a crew man keeping a watch on the wheel sets the boat to make way on autopilot, sits on the gunwale to defecate and falls back or is suddenly swept over by a surprise wave. Alcohol and drugs are also great killers at sea, and are frequently an element in people falling overboard. Someone falling overboard and swimming until noticed in the sea simply means a salty bath of uncertain duration. However, in colder waters, low temperatures may quickly cause often lethal hypothermia. Immersion for even a few minutes in ice-cold water and for longer periods in temperate water is dangerous, especially given that the onset of hypothermia is very slow and its symptoms are not obvious even to the affected person, who may just lie down to rest, and then die. In water, even the best swimmers will drown once they have lost their body heat. In areas with water temperatures in the winter often below 5°C, immersion suits are absolutely essential for survival if people are forced into the water (Berkow et al., 1997). 6.4. Capsizing and other accidents associated with operating fishing gear Fishing vessels may capsize while fishing for a number of reasons, including poor stability in bad weather, often associated with overloading, or a combination of factors. One problem is that fishing vessels often capsize or otherwise sink before crew members are able to access onboard survival equipment; consequently, lives are lost. Trawlers, mainly small and medium-sized, may experience extreme listing, or even capsize, when their gear becomes snagged on a fastener. This danger increases in tall swell or in rough seas when the pull in one of the warps acting at the vessel’s side downward combines with an additional downward force due to a list caused by a wave. This may cause people and poorly lashed objects to be swept across the deck or overboard, or the whole boat to capsize. Such accidents can be avoided if the means for releasing snagged warps are devised and used. Short case-study 4: Colombia In 1981, a small shrimper capsized in the Golfo de Uraba (Colombia) during warps hauling, after her trawling gear got caught on a fastener. It happened so suddenly that there was no time for sending or exhibiting any distress signal. Her crew of five stayed alive owing to a waterproof air box fitted in the bow, which kept the boat afloat. They clung to the hull for nine hours before being saved by the crew of a passing artisanal fishing canoe (P. Medley, personal com.). Small seiners may capsize under the combined action of swell or high waves and the downward pressure from a large catch of fish "sinking" during the last stage of net-hauling on power blocks suspended from masts or mounted on tall pedestals. The consequences are similar to those in trawlers (see above). This danger is much less in small purse-seiners, where the net hauling process is manual. Fouling a propeller or a rudder usually occurs during gear-hauling with the propeller working astern to help with the hauling process and when a current and wind combination brings the boat over the net. In some cases the fouling is heavy, especially if steel-wire ropes are involved, the vessel being immobilized until the propeller is made clear. In cold water and in vessels with relatively deep-set propellers, this operation may require diving suits and scuba gear, equipment that is rarely carried on board small-scale fishing vessels. A boat immobilized in this way and her crew may find themselves in a dangerous situation (see section 5.1). 6.5. Risks from scuba diving and explosives Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba) is becoming increasingly available throughout the world, including areas at a low level of technological development. However, where high profits are expected, diving fishermen either invest in such equipment themselves or are recruited, often from among traditional "naked" divers, by dealers. Such fishermen are often poorly trained and do not keep to decompression tables and other rules of skin diving. In addition, where decompression chambers are available, their very presence encourages some people to take risks. In the Indian Ocean and in some parts of Oceania, more fisheries-related deaths and injuries among untrained village divers fishing with hookah and scuba gear seem to occur than among those who become lost or injured on fishing boats. In Indonesia, fishermen use scuba gear while fishing with explosives and cyanide and while collecting fish and trepang (sea cucumbers). They are, no doubt, aware of the possible consequences, for many fishermen are partially paralysed, having lost limbs. To make a living, fishing divers must obey the pungawa (boss/middleman) who keeps sending them for longer and deeper dives if they do not come up with enough catch. This is also a major problem in the Philippines – particularly as a result of the very profitable live-fish export trade – in the Caribbean Sea and in the Mexican spiny lobster fisheries. The Miskito Indians of Nicaragua seem to be so prone to diving accidents that they have attracted particular assistance on the part of an NGO, Sub-Ocean Safety (P. Medley, L. Pet, personal coms.).   7. Problems associated with boat design and construction 7.1. General Small-scale fishing fleets, mainly in developing countries, consist of a large variety of fishing craft, either of traditional designs and often well-adapted to local conditions, or of imported designs. They are too often built with no regard to modern rules of construction that ensure good stability and seaworthiness under specific operating conditions. With the almost universal absence of mandatory criteria and inspections, many poorly trained boat builders have produced unsafe and otherwise inefficient boats, due to lack of experience, financial constraints, lack of appropriate materials, and lax or even criminal practices. 7.2. Developing country small-scale fisheries In the Caribbean region, West and East Africa, South America, Asia and Oceania, most small-scale fishing vessels are less than 12 m in length and their actual design and construction have evolved largely from experience, rather than from a structured approach to fishing vessel development and safety. Nevertheless, in many cases, traditional designs meet their specific conditions of operation quite well. For example, large (up to 16 m in length) ocean-going West African canoes, whether of the Senegalese or Ghanaian type, comprise features which make them superior to many modern types of boat that were imported to West Africa with a view to replacing them. One important feature, staying afloat after capsizing in surf, was described in section 4.1 above. The other is their banana-shaped profile which enables their crew to zigzag the canoe up the beach by pressing down on either end of the canoe alternately, thus lifting the central part from the ground and turning the boat by some 45 degrees each zig or zag. This is a very fast process that requires relatively little effort, making the beaching stage easier and safer than with any modern western or Japanese type of boat that have straight keels or straight flat bottoms. A great advantage of the artisanal fishing rafts, such as the Brazilian janghadas or the Indian kattumarams, apart from their shallow draft for beaching, is that they are practically unsinkable. In some cases, however, successful technical assistance projects or gradually imported technological influences have resulted in modifications to local designs, or in the purpose-design of fishing boats fitting the local marine and socio-economic and cultural conditions. If successful, such innovations have been adopted and disseminated, such as in the ocean-going motorized "pirogues" of the West Indies and the similar boats of Ecuador, the small shrimp-trawlers and purse-seiners of India, or the fast tuna pole and line launches of Tahiti. Such successes, however, may entail unforeseen hazards. One such case occurred in Samoa where a small aluminium catamaran called the alia was designed and introduced under an FAO programme. The alia was designed to enable fishermen to safely reach outlying reefs and beyond to fish with hooks and lines. Economic success resulted, the number of alias produced rose to the hundreds and even serious losses in two severe cyclones failed to reduce their numbers for long. But with alia fishermen venturing further offshore, beyond the range for which they had been designed, accidents became more frequent and the number of casualties increased (see Short case-study 5: Samoa) (T. Adams, L. Lambeth, personal coms.). Short case-study 5: Samoa According to its Central Bank, in the fourth quarter of 1998 Samoa’s exports earned US$14.5 million, a 41 per cent increase over the same period of the previous year. This increase was driven by booming fresh fish exports, mainly to canneries in American Samoa, which has emerged as the country’s biggest market. However, during the 1997-98 period, Samoa was losing its longline fishermen using alias at an alarming rate. There were 20 fatalities even before the end of the year. Often whole crews and boats just vanished and it is thought that some of the boats were breaking up and sinking. Hardly any safety equipment is carried on board, crews are often inexperienced, but are drawn into the business by the relatively high earnings. There is a VHF radio system in place, with a 24-hour staffed base in Apia, but in case of trouble, without GPS or often even a compass, fishermen are seldom able to supply helpful information on their actual position. The problem is due to a number of factors, all related to the rapid expansion of the tuna longline fishery in Samoa. In the 1970s DANIDA (a Danish assistance agency) financed an FAO boat building project in Samoa that introduced the alias (8.5 m catamarans, powered by 25-40 hp outboard motors) which soon became the preferred vessel for the developing demersal and pelagic fishery. Over the past five or six years the offshore longline fishery has boomed. Although severe cyclones in 1990 and 1991 had reduced the original fleet, in June 1994 there were some 87 alias, while four years later their number reached 237. Many of these boats are now being used to fish much further offshore than they were ever designed to, employing skippers and crews with little or no training. Furthermore, new, bigger alias are being built by just expanding the original design with no thought to stability or potential stresses. It is also possible that some of the aluminium welding is not up to standard. Consequently, in 1998 the Government decided to introduce boat surveys at the design stage, as well as a training programme for skippers and crews (L. Lambeth, personal com.). 7.3. Developed country small-scale fisheries Many modern small fishing boats are well designed and well constructed, some even made unsinkable owing to airtight or plastic foam-filled, lifeboat-style compartments. Large heavy displacement vessels, of the 10-12 m LOA class, are usually naval-architect designed and constructed in serious boatyards. However, even where the environment is one of highly developed technologies, the situation is far from satisfactory. There are still problems stemming from inadequate, traditional and even modern designs in some countries where there are neither obligatory design and construction standards nor mandatory inspections. The main design problems include inadequate freeboard and basic stability, inadequate stability under various working conditions, and poor accommodation, sometimes at the expense of unneeded fish-hold space.   8. Various risks and dangers 8.1. Fishermen’s know-how and attitudes Fishing is a profession associated with risk taking. Varying degrees of risk are inherent in almost every decision made by a skipper or individual fisherman on when and where to go fishing or run for shelter, what method/gear to use, whether or not to change a fishing spot, which direction to set the gear, when and where to land the catch, etc. Such decisions are taken against the background of changing weather, the condition of the fishing vessel and equipment, and the dexterity of the crew. They depend on the skipper’s cultural and individual attitude, experience and skill; the element of hazard is omnipresent. 8.1.1. Modern technology in traditional fisheries In traditional fisheries of longstanding, artisanal fishermen have inherited time-proven responses to crises at sea, survival strategies and weather perception that, along with their fishing know-how, have evolved through ages of operating traditional technology in local conditions. However, the introduction of modern technologies into the traditional systems has frequently upset the traditional way of doing things, not always for the better. Abandoning sails and neglecting the art of sailing, as mentioned above, is only one example. Another is the lack of understanding of the limits of modern technology and hence unheeded risk taking. This is often compounded by insufficient technical training in engine operation and by inadequate maritime training in navigation, use of electronic aids and safety equipment, first aid, and behaviour in emergencies. There is also deskilling in traditional knowledge not only due to the shift to strange technologies, but also to changes in the age composition of the crew. With many unemployed youth, for various reasons older, experienced fishermen more often stay ashore. Young fishermen, apart from lacking the traditional survival skills and equipment, like young car drivers, feel less vulnerable to accidents than their elders who are more experienced in survival at sea, though may be less skilled in operating machinery. 8.1.2. Mistrust Another factor is mistrust of modern weather forecasting systems and, perhaps more so, their messengers. That landlubber officials and white-collar boys seem to be able to predict an imminent typhoon or hurricane, when even old fishermen cannot see a sign of it, may not go down very well with some fishermen. For example, when the deadly November 1996 cyclone hit the Kakinada coast, the warnings were met in some places with derision by the fishermen who could not discern the usual storm-indicating symptoms in the sky and sea. On the day of the cyclone, crews in tens of fishing boats were taking good catches, did not anticipate bad weather and paid no heed to the radio warnings (World Fishing, 1996; J. Turner, personal com.). 8.1.3. Insufficient technical training In many countries, skippers of small fishing vessels are not required to obtain certification, undergo mandatory marine training, nor pass examinations. This leads, especially in developed countries where small-scale vessels may have considerable cargo capacity and heavy machinery on deck, to many stability related accidents. Most decked small fishing vessels can be made top-heavy by ignorant skippers who have not been taught the difference between a "stiff" but stable boat and one that is rolling gently and slowly but is either inherently unstable or its stability has been impaired by overloading. Insufficient training is also a reason for skippers’ and crews’ ignorance of the ways to deal with emergencies such as fire on board or taking water. A skipper of a small fishing vessel not trained in handling it in tall waves and strong currents, especially in narrow passages, represents a risk to all on board. 8.1.4. Prestige considerations This is an important socio-cultural and psychological aspect of the fishing trade. Fishing is a highly competitive activity and competition is an important part of fishermen’s lives. Highly successful fishermen ("highliners") enjoy tremendous prestige among other fishermen and their own communities. Prestige considerations, therefore, force skippers to take excessive risks. 8.2. Fishery management measures and economic factors 8.2.1. Economic and financial pressures Fishermen often take risks leading to danger to themselves and their boats owing to economic need, passing financial difficulty such as temporarily low earnings, and pressure by fish dealers, boat owners, banks and other creditors, etc. Such behaviour, especially when it involves sailing out despite a storm forecast, or trying to make an extra haul when better judgement advises seeking shelter, or overloading the boat, sometimes leads to tragedy. Large catches lead to overloading in artisanal fisheries as well. Canoes and small boats often leak and water has to be constantly bailed out. A purse-seining canoe with all the net on board and a large catch leaves little freeboard, and has to be bailed at a rate that may exceed the crew’s ability. Sinkings and capsizes then occur. 8.2.2. TAC-type management Fisheries management systems often exert pressures leading to risk taking. For example, total allowable catch (TAC) systems without individual quotas produce incentives to fish in bad weather and travel at high speed in risky waters, as each fishing unit competes to increase its proportion of the TAC, especially when the fishing season is, naturally or by regulation, short. The problem may become severe in a very short season with very high net daily revenues where the excess size of the fleet may exhaust the TAC in a very few days. 8.2.3. Quota systems The individual fishing quota (IFQ), individual vessel quota (IVQ) and individual transferable quota (ITQ) management systems might reduce risk-taking motivation, because staying in port in bad weather hardly affects the practically guaranteed total catch of each fishing unit involved. However, in terms of the landed fish value, high prices in periods of bad weather may drive fishermen working under quota systems out on risky fishing trips, which may be the only way to obtain the best price for what they land against their quotas. A "rush for fish" may also occur under the individual quota system, if fishermen suspect that the stock size has been overestimated and that lower catches may not meet their running expenses unless they move quickly. Another ramification of the quota system is that it may lead eventually to concentration of ownership in fewer hands. This brings into the fishery non-owner skippers, who are generally less experienced than owner skippers. Also, hired skippers may tend to overload their vessels because of pressure or bonuses from the owner and fear of losing their job if they land less catch than their colleagues. Additionally, where quotas are costly, fishermen may push their luck (Rayment and Fossi, 1994; P. Copes, T. Nies, personal coms.). Short case-study 6: Canada In British Columbia, salmon gill-net "openings" (limited-time fishing permitted in a given area) tend to be very short and often widely distributed along the coast. This has led to the development of a rather unique specialized fleet of 10-12 m long, fast, planing-hull salmon gill-netters. The particular stock management strategy motivates fishermen to fish one opening, sometimes for perhaps 24 hours and then speed off, at 20-30 knots, to another opening several hundred miles distant. In addition to the dangers to planing-hull craft in open-sea waves, fishermen, like drivers on highways, sometimes fall asleep at the wheel, resulting occasionally in groundings and collisions. Another risk stems from the Canadian practice of allowing for the leasing of fishing permits/quotas. As long as the halibut fishery was managed by an IVQ (Individual Vessel Quota) system, small boats could refrain from fishing in inclement weather and were able to catch their quotas when it suited them best. Hard working fishermen, however, are leasing additional quota for around 75 per cent of the fish’ market value. The result is that the leasing fisherman, to pay his way, has to fish in rough weather. Another area of danger for British Columbia’s small boat operators has to do with language. The small-scale fleet has always been manned by immigrants, many with little knowledge of English, for whom fishing has served as an entry-level job. This frequently results in communication problems that become dangerous in distress situations when misunderstandings occur, sometimes leading to the coastguard searching for boats and people in trouble in the wrong areas (A. Haig-Brown, personal com.). 8.3. Wars, pirates and other hostilities Fishermen fishing in areas of actual or suspected hostilities may become unintended victims if their boats are thought to be enemy forces or terrorist craft. For example, during Eritrea’s independence struggle against Ethiopia, Ethiopian armed forces destroyed many fishing dhows claiming that they were used for smuggling war supplies to the rebels. Reportedly, there were casualties among the fishermen. Piracy has been expanding in several areas, and some of the pirates target fishermen. Reports from eastern Nigeria tell of pirates attacking and even killing fishermen just to get their outboard engines. Piracy against fishermen has also been reported from other African countries. Many fishermen have been killed and their vessels lost due to sea mines and other military objects containing explosives. Explosions occur when people handling such objects are unaware of or neglect the dangers involved. Fishermen have also been killed in clashes between small-scale and larger vessel crews, and in conflicts between fishermen of different tribes and nationalities fighting over access to fishing grounds (Gallene, 1995, 1997). 8.4. Working conditions In several areas, large, often itinerant fishing ships take on board a large number of artisanal fishing craft with their crews for handlining on relatively distant fishing grounds. Living conditions of the artisanal fishermen on board such ships are usually very bad. Their food supply is limited and they have to sleep on deck. Their safety at sea is a low priority. At least one case of abandoning a canoe with five on board by a Portuguese-flag "mothership", that led to two dead from starvation, was reported in 1994 (Rayment and Fossi, 1994).   Updated by VC/BR. Approved by BW/OdVR. Last update: 24 October 2000. 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